The laser has become part of our lives and will be used much more in the years to come so we will start this section with a look at a few of the purposes for which lasers are used at the time of writing:
We will now look at the development and some simple
theory behind the operation of the laser.
A radio transmitter can emit a beam of electro-
magnetic radiation that is far purer than that emitted by a light source - in other words, much
more energy is generated with a small spread of frequency. It would be good to be able to
generate electromagnetic waves in the visible region so precisely and this did in fact become
possible in the 1960s with the invention of the optical maser or laser, the name deriving from
light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation.
Atoms in hot gases are
continuously being raised to higher energy states and their electrons then fall back at random,
so giving a disorderly outpouring of quanta. This is also true of the electrons in a hot tungsten
filament lamp. Conventional light sources are therefore incoherent sources, since we have no
control over when an atom is going to lose energy inthe form of radiation. The light that comes
from a laser, however, is coherent, parallel, monochromatic and in unbroken wave
chains.
We can make a normal light source more coherent by making it smaller, so
reducing the number of atoms that may emit quanta, but if we do this the intensity is reduced.
The total energy radiated by the Sun is about 7 kW per square centimetre of surface, and
although this may sound a large amount it must be remembered that this energy is spread out
over a very large range of frequency across the solar spectrum. If we try and filter out a narrow
band of light 1 MHz wide in the region of the Sun's greatest (about 480 nm) then we find that 1
cm2 of surface will give an output of only 0.000 01 W! So to get 1W we would need to
concentrate the light from 10 square metres of solar surface and of course using this large area
would completely destroy the coherence of the source.
The width of a standard
television channel is about 4 MHz but the visible region of the solar spectrum alone has a width
of some 320 million MHz, and could therefore contain about 80 million television channels!
Modern transmitters will emit up to 250 kW in the television region, however, in a band less than
1 MHz wide. The search therefore began for powerful coherent light sources.
The first
attempt was made by generating electromagnetic waves by electronic means, but even with a
microwave resonator the shortest wavelength possible was about 1 mm (1 000 000
nm).
Researchers then had the idea of using atoms and molecules as the resonant
structures, but unfortunately the power available from just one electron transition is very small
and it only occurs intermittently. They therefore had to try and persuade all the atoms in a
specimen to react simultaneously since this would produce a powerful coherent wave. This was
made possible using the maser principle discovered by Charles Townes at Columbia University
in 1954
The basis of the maser is
that of stimulated emission and is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1(a) shows an electron in its ground
state (Eo); in Figure 1(b) a photon with just the right energy raises the electron to an
excited state E1, and in Figure 1(c) another photon reacts with the atom causing the
electron to fall back to level Eo. The photon produced adds its energy to that of the
stimulating photon.
If this process goes on through the body of a specimen a beam of
radiation will be produced which is perfectly coherent and parallel.
For the lasing action
to work the electrons must stay in the excited (metastable) state for a reasonable length of time.
If they 'fell' to lower levels too soon there would not be time for the stimulating photon to cause
stimulated emission to take place.
The first successful optical maser (or laser) was
constructed by Maiman in 1960 using a small ruby rod; ruby is a form of aluminium oxide in
which a few of the aluminium atoms have been replaced by chromium.
Light is
absorbed from a flash tube wrapped round the rod and this raises the electrons up to an excited
level E3. They fall back rapidly to the metastable level E2, after which
further light will stimulate laser action back to level Eo (Figure 2(a)). The light emitted is
red with a wavelength of 693.2 nm. One end of the rod is silvered and the other end half
silvered so that the beam reflects backwards and forwards along the rod, and a pulse of light is
emitted from one end.
The original laser used a ruby rod 4 cm long and 0.5 cm in diameter,
producing an intense red beam for 0.0005 s. Figure 2(b) is a diagram of the structure of the
laser and Figure 2(c) illustrates the idea of stimulated emission: one photon moving parallel with
the axis of the tube stimulates a second atom to emit a photon, these stimulate further atoms to
emit and so on. The result is an intense beam of laser light moving parallel to the axis of the
rod.
Lasing medium | Emitted wavelength (nm) |
Helium-neon | 643 |
Rhodamine 6G dye (tuneable) | 570-650 |
Ruby | 694 |
Neodymium YAG | 1064 |
Carbon dioxide | 10600 |
On the laser disc the track is only about 1 mm wide and is made of a
series of tiny pits, each pit some 0.16 mm deep and of varying length (Figure 3). These pits are
scanned by a fine laser beam only 0.9 mm in diameter. The reflected light from the flat part of
the disc is detected by a photodiode and this modulated beam is converted into a television
picture. The disc is given a thin metallised coating and is then protected by a layer of plastic
through which the laser light can pass.
With a constant angular velocity (CAV) disc about 54
000 television frames may be carried, with some 28 x 109 bits of information per
side!
The compact disc has now been developed
and is widely used and the advent of the DVD (Digital Video Disc) with finer tracks enables even
more information to be stored on small discs. For example a CD will hold up to 750 Mb of
information and a DVD almost 5Gb (5000 Mb) - enough for a two hour long feature film.
At present the complete 6500 WORD and html pages of the schoolphysics site occupies a mere 400
Mb!